Chapters+15,+16,+and+17


 * __ Chapters Fifteen, Sixteen, and Nineteen __**

~ Aqueous Systems ~ Solutions ~ Acids, Bases, and Salts ~

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This page has been constructed on the fifteenth, sixteenth, and nineteenth chapters of Prentice Hall’s Chemistry textbook. Chapter fifteen explores the topics of water and aqueous systems. It explains topics including, but not limited to, properties of water and homogeneous and heterogeneous aqueous systems. Chapter sixteen focuses on solutions and their properties, concentrations, and colligative properties. It goes on to explain calculations involving colligative properties. Finally, Chapter nineteen explains the properties and types of acids and bases and how they are measured on the pH chart. This wiki-page outlines these chapters in their entirety and includes information crucial to the understanding of these chapters.

** Editor: Nina DeMeo **

**__Section 1__** - Water and Its Properties Steven Denison: pgs. 445-449

= **__Water and Its Properties__** =

Water in the Liquid State
- Water is a simple triatomic molecule. However without it life on Earth would not be possible - Water is formed through covalent bonds - Water is a polar molecule - Polar attraction between Water molecules result in Hydrogen Bonds

__Surface Tension__ - Water molecules form hydrogen bonds with eachother - Molecules on the surface of the water is drawn inward - This results in surface tension

- **Surface Tension** is the inward force that minimizes the surface area of a liquid - All liquids have surface tension - A **Surfactant** is a substance that interferes with hydrogen bonds and therefore reduces surface tension

__Vapor Pressure__ - Water has a low vapor pressure due to its hydrogen bonds - These bonds prevent molecules from escaping

Water in the Solid State
- Solid water has a lower density than liquid water - Initially waters density increases as it cools - Once water drops below 4 degrees C its density decreases - Ice has a lower density due to its honeycomb structure - The ability of ice to float on water is important in aquatic ecosystems - 334 J is required to turn ice into liquid water

**__Section 2__** - Homogeneous Aqueous Solutions Adam Shanahan: pgs. 450-458

=**__Homogeneous Aqueous Systems__**=

Solvents and Solutes
An **aqueous solution** is water that contains dissolved substances. In a solution, the **solvent** dissolves the **solute**. Ionic commpounds and polar covalent molecules dissolve readily in water while oil grease and gasoline compounds do not.

The Solution Process
When a crystal of sodium chloride in placed in water, the water molecules collide with it. The polar solvent molecules (H2O) attract the solute ions (Na +, CL-). As inidividual solute ions break away from the crystal, the negatively and positively charged ions become surounded by solvent molecules and the ionic crystal dissolves. **Solvation** is the process by which the positive and negative ions of an ionic solid become surrounded by solvent molecules. When the attractions among ions in crystals are stronger than the attractions exerted by water, the compound cannot be solvated to any significant extent and are nearly insoluble.

Electrolytes and Nonelectrolyes
And **electrolyte** is a compound that conducts electric currents when they are in aqueous solutions or in the molten state. All ionic compounds are electrolytes because they dissociate into ions. **Nonelectrolytes** are compounds that do not conduct electric currents in either the molten state or aqueous solutions.

Hydrates
A **hydrate** is a compound that contains water of hydration. When writing the formula of a hydrate, use a dot to connect the formula of the compound and the number of water molecules per formula unit.

Efflorescent Hydrates
The forces holding water molecules in hydrates are weak, so the water is easily lost and regained. If a hydrate has a vapor pressure higher than the pressure of water vapor in the air, the hydrate will lose its water of hydration or effloresce. When the vapor pressure drops below a certain point, the hydrate effloresces.

Hygroscopic Hydrates
Hydrated salts that have a low vapor pressure remove water from moist air to form higher hydrates. These hydrates and other compounds that remove moisture from air are called hygroscopic. To determine what percent of a hydrate is water, first determine the mass of the number of moles of water in one mole of hydrate. Then determine the total mass of the hydrate. The percent by mass of water can be calculated using this equation. Percent H2O= (mass of water/ mass of hydrate) X 100%

Deliquescent Compounds
Compounds that are so hygroscopic that they become wet when exposed to normally moist air are **deliquescent**. This means that they remove sufficient water from the air to dissolve completely and form solutions.

**__Section 3__** - Homogeneous Aqueous Solutions Andrew Sciotti: pgs. 459-463

Andrew Sciotti: pgs. 459-463 **Key Concept:** A suspension differs from a solution because the particles of a suspension are much larger and do not stay suspended indefinitely.  Suspension: A mixture from which particles settle out upon standing. A suspension is also considered a heterogeneous mixture and suspended particles can be removed by filtration. 
 * __Suspensions __**

**Key Concept:** Colloids have particles smaller than those in suspensions and larger than those in solutions.  Colloid: A heterogeneous mixture containing particles that ranges in size from 1 nm to 100 nm. A colloid has particles that spread throughout the dispersion medium. Glues were the first substance to be recognized as a colloid. Other Colloids: To distinguish a colloid you can use the Tyndall effect and by observing the Brownian motion.
 * __Colloids __**
 * Gelatin
 * Paint
 * Aerosol sprays
 * Smoke



 Tyndall Effect: The scattering of visible light by colloidal particles. <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Suspension demonstrates the Tyndall Effect <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">
 * __<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">The Tyndall Effect __**

<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;"> Brownian Motion: It is the chaotic movement of colloidal particles <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Was first observed by Robert Brown, a Scottish botanist. <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">This motion is caused by collisions of molecules of the dispersion medium with the small, dispersed colloidal particles, which prevent colloidal particles from settling.
 * __<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Brownian Motion __**

<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;"> Coagulation: It is when Colloidal particles absorb positive ions from the dispersion medium, and when the dispersion medium particles steal negative ions, thus creating a separately charged barrier, which makes it so heavier aggregates which would settle. <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Adding ions neutralize the charged colloidal particles which prevents the particles from clumping, which prevents settling.
 * __<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Coagulation __**

<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;"> Emulsion: A colloidal dispersion of a liquid in a liquid. <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Emulsifying agents cause liquids that usually do not mix (such as oil and vinegar with an egg yolk makes mayonnaise) to mix together. <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Soaps and detergents are other examples of emulsifying agents.
 * __<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Emulsions __**

**__Section 4__** - Properties of Solutions Katherine Perry: pgs. 471-479

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Katherine Perry – Pg. 471-479 <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">__** Properties of Solutions **__ <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; text-decoration: none;">Solution Formation <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; text-decoration: none;">//**Definition**// <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; text-decoration: none;">// Solutions :// Homogeneous mixtures that may be solid, liquid, or gaseous. <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; text-decoration: none;">//**Key Concept:**// The composition of the solvent and the solute determine whether a substance will dissolve. Stirring (agitation), temperature, and the surface area of the dissolving particles determine how fast the substance will dissolve. <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">__Stirring and Solution Formation:__ <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; text-decoration: none;">Stirring speeds up the dissolving process because fresh solvent is continually brought into contact with the surface area of the solute. An insoluble substance remains undissolved regardless of how vigorously or for how long the solvent/solute is agitated. <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">__Temperature and Solution Formation:__ <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; text-decoration: none;">The more rapid motion of the solvent molecules leads to an increase in the frequency and the force of the collisions between water molecules and the surfaces of the sugar crystals. (sugar in hot tea example) <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">__Particle Size and Solution Formation:__ <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; text-decoration: none;">The more surface of the solute that is exposed, the faster the rate of dissolving.

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; text-decoration: none;">Solubility <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; text-decoration: none;">//**Definition**// <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; text-decoration: none;"> //Saturated Solution:// Contains the maximum amount of solute for a given quantity of solvent at a constant temperature and pressure. <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; text-decoration: none;"> //Solubility:// Amount of solute that dissolves in a given quantity of a solvent at a specified temperature and pressure to produce a saturated solution. <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; text-decoration: none;"> //Unsaturated Solution:// Contains less solute than a saturated solution at a given temperature and pressure. <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; text-decoration: none;"> //Miscible:// Two liquids that dissolve in each other in all proportions. <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; text-decoration: none;"> //Immiscible:// Liquids that are insoluble in one another. <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; text-decoration: none;">//**Key Concept:**// Solubility is often expressed in grams of solute per 100 g of solvent.

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; text-decoration: none;">Factors Affecting Solubility <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; text-decoration: none;">//**Definition**// <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; text-decoration: none;"> //Supersaturated Solution:// Contains more solute than it can theoretically hold at a given temperature. <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; text-decoration: none;"> //Henry's Law:// States that at a given temperature, the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the pressure of the gas above the liquid. (S/P = S/P) <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; text-decoration: none;">//**Key Concept:**// Temperature affects the solubility of solid, liquid, and gaseous solutes in a solvent; both temperature and pressure affect the solubility of gaseous solutes. <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">__Temperature:__ <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; text-decoration: none;">The solubility of most solid substances increases as the temperature of the solvent increases. However, for a few substances solubility decreases with temperature. <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; text-decoration: none;">The effect of temperature on the solubility of gases in liquid solvents is opposite that of solids. The suitabilities of most gases are greater in cold water than in hot. <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">__Pressure:__ <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; text-decoration: none;">Changes in pressure have little affect on the solubility of solids and liquids, but pressure strongly influences the solubility of gases. Gas solubility increases as the partial pressure of the gas above the solution increases.



**__Section 5__** - Concentration of Solutions Mike McShane: pgs. 480-482 Christos Anastos: pgs. 483-486

**__ Chapter 6 Section 2 Part 1: Mike McShane __** ** Concentrations of Solutions ** Key Concepts: · How to calculate the molarity of a solution. · What effect does dilution have on the total moles of solute in solution. · Two ways to express the percent concentration of a solution. Vocabulary: · Concentration · Dilute Solution · Molarity (M) __ Molarity __ The __concentration__ of a solution is a measure of the amount of solute that is dissolved in an amount of solvent. A __dilute solution__ contains a small amount of solute while a __concentrated solution__ contains a large amount of solute. Concentrated and dilute are general terms such that 1g of NaCl per 100g of water may be considered as dilute when compared to 30g of NaCl per 100g of water and that same 1g of NaCl may be considered concentrated compared to .01g of NaCl per 100g of water. Concentration can be expressed in terms of __molarity (M)__ which is the number of moles of solute dissolved in one liter of solution. Molarity (M) = __Moles of Solute__ Liters of Solution

If a solution contains 1.10g of NaOH in exactly 100 mL of that solution. What is the molarity of the solution? You must use dimensional analysis with the solution concentration as the goal. So, Solution Concentration = __1.10g NaOH__ X __1 mol NaOH__ X __1000 mL__ = .25M 100 mL 40.01g NaOH 1L The solution contains .25M NaOH.
 * Example of calculating molarity of a solution: **

How many moles of solute are present in 4.50 L of 1.6M NaOH? For this problem you must switch around the equation: Molarity (M) = __Moles of Solute__ Liters of Solution You must change to find moles of solute so Moles of Solute = Molarity x Liters of Solution In this problem you would have Moles of NaOH = 1.6M x 4.5 L Then by multiplying you get the answer that 4.50 L of 1.6M NaOH contains 7.2 mol NaOH. media type="youtube" key="8oTqwBAvbnY" height="349" width="425"-Molarity Video: Mike McShane
 * Example of calculating moles of solute in a solution: **

**__Chapter 16.2 Part 2__ - Christos Anastos**
> M1=2.00M > V1=unknown > M2= .400M > V2= 100mL > 2.00M x V = .400 = 100mL > So V1 is 20mL <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">**__Percent Solutions__** > Mass of Solute=85mL > Mass of Solution=250mL > %of ethanol=unknown > % of ethanol=(85mL) / (250mL) x 100% = 34%
 * __Making Solutions__**
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Diluting a solution reduces the number of moles of solute per unit volume.
 * However the amount of solute remains the same
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">The equation is:
 * Moles of Solute=M1xV1=M2xV2
 * where M is the molarity of the solution and V is its volume
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">To measure the volume of a solution one should use a buret, graduated cylinder, a volumetric flask, or a volumetric pipet
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Example: How many mL of aqueous 2.00M MgSO4 solution must be diluted with water to prepare 100 mL of aqueous .4ooM MgSO4
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">A way to describe the concentration of a solution is by the percent of solute in the solvent
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">The concentration of a solution in percent can be expressed in two ways
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">1. The ratio of the volume of the solute to the volume of the solution
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">2. The ratio of the mass of the solute to the mass of the solution.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">The equation for volume to volume is,
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Percent by volume=(Volume of solute) / (Volume of Solution) x 100%
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">The equation for mass to mass is,
 * Percent by mass=(mass of solute) / (mass of solution) x 100%
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Example: What is the percent by volume of ethanol (C2H6O) in the final solution when 85 mL of ethanol is diluted to a volume of 250mL

media type="youtube" key="VMYpbUXqykQ" height="390" width="480"Christos Anastos

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #800080; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left;">__[]__

**__Section 6__** - Colligative Properties Liz Sieber: pgs. 487-490

**Colligative Properties of Solutions - Elizabeth Sieber** __Vapor-Pressure Lowering__ Colligative properties : a property that depends on the number of solute particles, not the identity of the solute - examples: vapor-pressure lowering, boiling-point elevation, and freezing-point Vapor pressure : pressure exerted by a vapor that is in dynamic equilibrium with its liquid in a closed system - a solute that is non-volatile (not easily vaporized) makes a solution with a lower vapor pressure than its pure solvent - this is because the water molecules (or solvent) go around the solute that they are dissolving; they are stuck there and now there are less water molecules to escape as a vapor, making a lower vapor pressure. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 13px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;"> <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 13px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Pictures: Elizabeth Sieber
 * Key Concept:** The decrease in a solution's vapor pressure is proportional to the number of particles the solute makes in a solution

__Freezing-Point Depression__ Freezing-point depression : the difference in temperature between the freezing point of a solution and the freezing point of the pure solvent - when a substance freezes, the particles go into an orderly pattern, but when you have a solute, its harder to make this pattern. - this makes the freezing point lower that the pure substance -1 mol of any solute particles drops the freezing point of 1000 g of water 1.86 degrees Celcius. -note: 1 mol of glucose (which produces 1 mol of particles) drops the freezing point to -1.86 degrees, but 1 mol of sodium chloride (which produces 2 mols of particles) drops the freezing point -3.72 degrees <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 13px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;"> Picture: Elizabeth Sieber
 * Key Concept:** The magnitude of the freezing-point depression is proportional to the number of solute particles dissolved in the solvent and does not depend upon their identity. (simply, the number of solute particles is what makes the freezing point drop; the type of solute doesn't have an effect)

__Boiling-Point Elevation__ Boling-point elevation : the difference in temperature between the boiling point of a solution and the boiling point of the pure solvent -because of a decrease in vapor pressure, additional energy must be added to solution in order for it to boil -this makes the boiling point higher thanthe pure substance -1 mol of solute increases the boiling point of 1000 g of water by 0.512 degrees Celcius
 * Key Concept:** The magnitude of the boiing-point elevation is proportional to the number of solute particles dissolved in the solvent

**__Section 7__** - Colligative Properties and Calculations Kendyl Barron: pgs. 491-493 Courtney Gareau: pgs. 494-496

** Molality and Mole Fraction -Kendyl Barron ** __Colligative properties__ depend only upon solute concentration. **//Molality//** and //**mole fractions**// are other way to express the concentration of a solution. Molality (m), otherwise known as mole concentration, is the number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 kilogram of solvent. Molality refers to moles of solute per kilogram of solvent rathan than molarity which refers to moles of solute per liter of solution. It is important to note 1kg equals 1000g which equals 1000 ml which equals 1 L.   à For example, to prepare a solution 1m in glucose, one must add 1 mol (180g) of glucose to 1000g of water.

The concentration of a solution is also expressed as a mole fraction in some cases. The mole fraction of a solute in a solution is the ratio of the moles of that solute to the total number of moles of solvent and solute. A solution containing nA mol of solute A and nB mol of solvent B, the mole fraction of this solute and solvent can be expressed this way: ** xA= nA/nA +nB xB= nB/nA +nB **

**__Freezing-Point Depression and Boiling-Point Elevation__ - Courtney Gareau **
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 0in; text-decoration: none;"> Key Concept – The magnitude of the freezing-point depression ( <span style="font-family: Times New Roman,serif;">ΔTf) and the boiling point elevation (ΔTb) of a solution are directly proportional to the molal concentration (m), <span style="font-family: Times New Roman,serif;">when the solute is molecular, not ionic. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,serif;">Change in freezing temperature (ΔT f) – the difference between the freezing point of the solution and the freezing point of pure solvent <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,serif;">Change in boiling temperature (ΔT b) – difference between the boiling point of the solution and the boiling point of pure solvent <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,serif;">Term //<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">m – // <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; text-decoration: none;"> is the molal concentration of the solution <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">ΔTf = Kf <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; text-decoration: none;">x <span style="font-family: Times New Roman,serif;">//<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">m // <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Kf <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; text-decoration: none;">= molal freezing-point depression constant (value depends upon the solvent; units are ºC/ <span style="font-family: Times New Roman,serif;">//<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">m //

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-decoration: none;"> Molal freezing-point depression constant (Kf <span style="font-family: Times New Roman,serif;">) - the change in the freezing point for a 1-molal solution of a nonvolatile molecular solute

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">ΔTb = Kb <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; text-decoration: none;">x <span style="font-family: Times New Roman,serif;">//<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">m // <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Kb <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; text-decoration: none;">= molal boiling-point depression constant (value depends upon the solvent; units are ºC/ <span style="font-family: Times New Roman,serif;">//<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">m //

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-decoration: none;"> Molal boiling-point depression constant (Kf <span style="font-family: Times New Roman,serif;">) - the change in the boiling point for a 1-molal solution of a nonvolatile molecular solute

media type="youtube" key="SX5V7kzmGeU" height="390" width="640"

[|Youtube Video Explaining How to Calculate the Freezing-Point depression of a Solution and the Boiling-Point Elevation of Solution]Courtney Gareau

**__Section 8__** - Acid Base Theories Maggie Bie: pgs. 587-589 Evan Grandfield: pgs. 590-593

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">**<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Properties of Acids and Bases – Maggie Bie pgs 587-588 **

__<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">**<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Acids ** __ <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Acidic compounds give foods a tart or sour taste <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Aqueous solutions of acids are electrolytes <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">-can conduct electricity <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">-some strong, some weak <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Can change color; react with aqueous solutions to produce hydrogen gas <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Acids react with compounds containing hydroxide ions to form water and a salt <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">//Key Concept//- Acids taste sour, will change the color of an acid-base indicator, and can be strong or weak electrolytes in an aqueous solution

__<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">**<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Bases ** __ <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Bases have bitter taste (but not really a good idea to taste them) <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">-like soap (aka don’t eat soap) <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Maggie Bie <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Aqueous solutions of bases are also electrolytes <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Water and a salt are formed when a base than contains hydroxide ions reacts with an acid <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">//Key Concept//- Bases taster bitter, feel slippery, will change the color of an acid-base indicator, and can be strong or weak electrolytes in aqueous solution

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 0px; overflow: hidden; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 0px; overflow: hidden; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Maggie Bie

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">**<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Arrhenius Acids and Bases – Maggie Bie pgs 588 - 590 ** <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius proposed revolutionary way of defining and thinking about acids and bases <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Key Concept- Arrhenius said that acids are hydrogen-containing compounds that ionize to yield hydrogen ions (H+) in aqueous solution. He also said that bases are compounds that ionize to yield hydroxide ions (OH-) in aqueous solution. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">**<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Arrhenius Acids ** <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Monoprotic acids- <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">acids that contain one ionizable hydrogen <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Diprotic acids <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">- acids that contain two ionizable hydrogen <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Triprotic acids <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">- acids that contain three ionizable hydrogen <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Only hydrogens in very polar bonds are ionizable <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">-hydrogen is joined to a very electronegative element <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">-when compound with these ponds dissolves in water it releases hydrogen ions because the hydrogen ions are stabilized by salvation <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">**<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Arrhenius Bases ** <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Common bases : <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Name Formula Solubility in water <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0.5in;">Potassium hydroxide KOH High <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0.5in;">Sodium hydroxide NaOH High <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0.5in;">Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 Very low <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0.5in;">Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2 Very low <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Different compontents make bases useful in different things <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Ex: sodium hydroxide is used in drain uncloggers because it is extremely caustic

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #0066cc; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left;">__[]__ - Maggie Bie

**Pages 590-593-Evan Grandfield**

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">IV. Bronsted-Lowry Acids and Bases <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">A. The Arrhenius definition of acids and bases is not a very comprehensive one. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">1. It does not include substances that have acidic or basic properties. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">2. Ex: aqueous solutions of sodium carbonate and ammonia are basic, but neither of these compounds is a hydroxide, and neither would be classified as a base under the Arrhenius definition. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">3. The Bronsted-Lowry theory defines an acid as a hydrogen-ion donor, and a base as a hydrogen ion acceptor. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">4. All acids and bases Arrhenius theory included, are still included in Bronsted-Lowry theory, but some compounds not included in Arrhenius theory are classified as bases in Bronsted-Lowry theory. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">V. Why Ammonia is a base <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">A. Bronsted-Lowry theory classifies ammonia as a base. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">1. It is very soluble in water, and when it dissolves in water, it acts as a base because it accepts a hydrogen ion from water. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">http://chemmaster.co.in/showchapter.php?id=8&id2=102&title=Equilibrium

-Evan Grandfield

media type="youtube" key="p-bJK3DxW7A" height="390" width="640" -Evan Grandfield

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">2. Ammonia is the hydrogen-ion acceptor and therefore is a Bronsted-Lowry base. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">3. Water is the hydrogen-ion donor and is Bronsted-Lowry acid. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">4. Hydrogen ions are transferred from water to ammonia; this causes the hydroxide-ion concentration to be greater than it is in pure water; consequently, solutions of ammonia are basic. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">VI. Conjugate Acids and Bases <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">A. Because all gases become less soluble in water as temperature increases, increasing the temperature of an aqueous solution of ammonia releases ammonia gas. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">1. As ammonia gas leaves the solution, the equilibrium in the equation shifts to the left. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">B. When ammonia dissolves and then reacts with water, NH4+ is the conjugate acid of the base NH3. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">1. A conjugate acid is the particle formed when a base gains a hydrogen ion. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">2. OH- is the conjugate base of the acid water. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. A conjugate base is the particle that remains when an acid has donated a hydrogen ion. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">3. Conjugate acids and bases are always paired with a base or an acid, respectively. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">4. Sometimes, water accepts a hydrogen ion. At other times, it donates a hydrogen ion. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. A substance that can act as both an acid and a base is amphoteric. Water is amphoteric. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">VII. Lewis Acids and Bases <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">A. Gilbert Lewis proposed that an acid accepts a pair of electrons during a reaction while a base donates a pair of electrons. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">1. This concept is more general than either the Arrhenius theory or the Bronsted-Lowry theory. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. A Lewis acid is a substance that can accept a pair of electrons to form a covalent bond. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. A Lewis base is a substance that can donate a pair of electrons to form a covalent bond.

**__Section 9__** - Hydrogen Ions Tom DeMarco: pgs. 594-603

Thomas DeMarco 19.2 Hydrogen Ions and Acidity (pg. 594- 603)

__Hydrogen Ions from Water__ Water molecules are polar and are always in motion. Their collisions sometimes knock a hydrogen ion off of the molecule and another water molecule takes it. The water molecule that loses a hydrogen ion is called a hydroxide ion and the water molecule that gains a hydrogen ion is called a hydronium ion. The equation looks like: H2O(l) <> H+(aq) + OH-(aq) This process is known as self- ionization. When the hydroxide and hydronium ions are equal in an aqueous solution it is known as a neutral solution. __Ion Product Constant for Water__ [H+] x [OH-] = 1.0 x 10-14 When the hydrogen- ion concentration is greater than the hydroxide- ion concentration the solution is an acidic solution. When the hydroxide- ion concentration is greater than the hydrogen- ion concentration the solution is a basic solution or alkaline solution. __The pH Concept__ Soren Sorensen proposed the idea of the pH scale in 1909. On the pH scale, 0 is strongly acidic, 7 is neutral, and 14 is strongly basic. The pH scale can be mathematically represented by the equation: pH = -log[H+] __Calculating pOH__ The pOH of a solution equals the negative logarithm of the hydroxide- ion concentration. pOH = -log[OH-] __Measuring pH__ For roughly finding the pH of solutions, indicators are often used. To find precise pH levels, a pH meter is often used. __Acid- Base Indicators__ Indicators can be limited for their usefulness because most colors are matched up for a temperature of 25oC and different temperatures could affect the pH that changes the color. Salts can affect the dissociation. Solutions being tested that have a color can also distort the color of the indicator.
 * For aqueous solutions, the product of the hydrogen- ion concentration and the hydroxide- ion concentration equals 1.0 x 10-14.**
 * A solution in which [H+] is greater than 1 x 10-7M has a pH of less than 7.0 and is acidic. The pH of pure water or a neutral aqueous solution is 7.0. A solution with a pH greater than 7 is basic and has a [H+] of less than 1 x 10-7M.**
 * An indicator is a valuable tool for measuring pH because its acid form and base form have different colors in solution.**

**__Section 10__** - Strengths of Acids and Bases Eileen Corkery: pgs. 605-607 Heather Bowditch: pgs. 608-611

**__19.3 Strengths of Acids and Bases__** (pgs. 605-607) By Eileen Corkery

Citric Acid= weak Sulfuric acid= VERY strong Photo credit: Eileen Corkery

- We have acids around us everyday, although some are very weak, and some are very strong - One example of a weak acid is citric acid, commonly found in oranges and lemons. One strong acid is sulfuric acid, which is used in industrial factories, and can burn through skin. - Acids are called strong or weak, depending on the degree to which they ionize in water. ~Strong acids (such as hydrochloric acid in your stomach, and sulfuric acid) are completely ionized in aqueous solutions. ~Weak acids, such as ethanoic acid (aka acetic acid), are only slightly ionized in aqueous solutions. media type="youtube" key="u5mNk1CEpDg" height="349" width="425" (Video credit: Eileen Corkery)
 * I) Strong Acids and Weak Acids**

- In weak acids, very few of the molecules are ionized at any instant; they do no dissociate in water. -In strong acids, almost all of the molecules are ionized, and the acid completely dissociates in water. - Now this is where it gets kind of difficult. I highly recommend that if I do not explain this adequately, that you turn to pages 606-607 in you textbook for further explaining:) - An acid dissociation constant (Ka) is the ratio of the concentration of the dissociated (aka ionized) form of an acid to the concentration of the undissociated (nonionized) form. Acid dissociation constants can be created by combining the constant concentration of water with K(eq) - Example: K(eq) x (H2O) = K(a)= __(H3O+) X (CH3COO-)__ --- -(CH3COOH) -Dissociation constants are sometimes called ionization constants because the acid dissociation constant reflects the fraction of an acid in the ionized form. - Weak acids have small K(a) values. The stronger an acid is, the larger its K(a) value is. (K(a) is the acid dissociation constant)
 * II) Acid Dissociation Constant**

If you have A LOT of extra time on your hands, you might want to check out this website too. Download the excel document and then click on the "dissociation" tab. http://academic.pgcc.edu/~ssinex/UCCEN_F07/

__**pg 608-611**__
Not only are there strong acids and weak acids, but there are also strong bases and weak bases. //Strong Bases// à in an aqueous solution, strong bases will dissociate completely into metal ions and hydroxide ions //Weak Bases// à react in water and form the hydroxide ion and the conjugate acid of the base (in other words, base + H2O = OH⁻ + base with one more hydrogen) example:
 * __Base Dissociation Constant__**
 * some strong bases are not very soluble in water; only small amounts of these bases can dissolve completely

NH₃ (//aq//) + H₂O (//l//) = NH₄ (//aq//) + OH⁻ (//aq//)

In the above equation ammonia reacts with water to form ammonium (one more hydrogen ion than ammonia) and hydroxide. The //base dissociation constant **Kb**// is the ratio of the concentration of the conjugate acid times the concentration of the hydroxide ion to the concentration of the base: Kb= [(conjugate acid) X (OH-)] / (base) The smaller the value of Kb, the weaker the base.

**__Concentration and Strength__** When an acid or base is dissolved in a solution it can be: concentrated-- amount of moles of acid or base > solute dilute-- amount of moles of acid or base < solute strong--most particles are ionized or dissociated into ions weak--not many particles are ionized or dissociated into ions **the strength of an acid or base doesn’t change depending on how concentrated or dilute it is** **__Calculating Dissociation constants__** Key concept: To find the Ka of a weak acid or the Kb of a weak base, substitute the measured concentrations of all the substances present at equilibrium into the expression for Ka or Kb. Practice Problem(pg 610 #22) //In exactly 0.1M solution of methanoic acid, [H+] = 4.2 X 10 -3M. Calculate the Ka of methanoic acid.// First, list the knowns and unknown. Known: - methanoic acid = 0.1 M - [H+] = 4.2 X 10 -3 M  - HCOOH (aq) + H2O (l) = H3O+ (aq) + HCOO - (aq) - Ka = {[H+] X [HCOO-]} / HCOOH Unknown: - Ka = ?

Next, solve for the unknown.

Take the initial concentration, 0.1M, and subtract 4.2 X 10 -3 M to find the equilibrium.

0.100- 0.0042 = 0.0958 M

Now, plug in the rest of the equation.

Ka = [(.0042) X (.0042)] / .0958


 * //Ka = 1.84 x 10 - 4//**

**__Section 11__** - Neutralization Reactions Marion Burdick: pgs. 612-616

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Strong Acid + Strong Base <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">à a Salt + Water <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;"> <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">**<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Titration ** <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">//<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Equivalence point: // the point in a titration where the number of moles of hydrogen ions equals the numbers of moles of hydroxide ions. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Ex. H<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">2 SO<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">4 (//<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">aq //) + 2NaOH(//<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">aq //) <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">à <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;"> Na<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">2 SO<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">4 (//<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">aq //) + 2H<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">2 O (//<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">l //) <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">1 mole + 2 mole <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">à <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;"> 1 mole + 2 moles <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">//<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Math- // How many moles of sulfuric acid are required to neutralize .92 moles of sodium hydroxide? <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">- moles NaOH= 0.92 mol <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">- <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">H<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">2 SO<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">4 (//<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">aq //) + 2NaOH(//<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">aq //) <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">à <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;"> Na<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">2 SO<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">4 (//<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">aq //) + 2H<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">2 O (//<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">l //) <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">- mole ratio… mols H<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">2 SO<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">4 (1): mol NaOH (2) <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">-unknown is moles H<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">2 SO<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">4 <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">0.92 <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: line-through;">mol NaOH * (1 mol H<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">2 SO<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">4 / 2 <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: line-through;">mol NaOH ) =**<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">0.46 mol H<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">2 SO<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">4 ** <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">1.) A measured volume of an acid solution of unknown concentration is added to a flask using a buret <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">2.) Several drops of the indicator are added to the solution. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">3.) Measured volumes of a base of known concentration are mixed into the acid until the indicator just barely changes color. > <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">media type="youtube" key="g8jdCWC10vQ?rel=0" height="349" width="425" align="left"
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">If you mix a solution in a mole ratio of a **<span style="background-color: transparent; color: red; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">strong acid ** with a solution of a **<span style="background-color: transparent; color: blue; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">strong base **… a neutral solution results (neither characteristics of an acidic or basic solution)
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Similar reaction of weak acids and/ or weak bases do NOT usually produce neutral solutions
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">//<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Neutralization reaction: // a reaction in which an acid and a base react in an aqueous solution to produce a salt and water.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Neutralization reactions are one way in which to prepare pure samples of **<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">salt. **
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">**<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Key Concept: **In general, the reaction of an acid with a base produces water and one of a class of compounds called salts.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">There are several different kinds of salt! Not just the kind you put on your french-fries :)
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">The concentration of an acid or a base can be determined by performing a neutralization reaction
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Acid-base indicators include: red cabbage juice or any solution containing phenolphthalein…
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">A solution containing phenolphthalein turns **<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #cc00cc; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">dark pink ** if the pH changes from <span style="background-color: transparent; color: red; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">acidic to <span style="background-color: transparent; color: navy; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">basic
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">A solution containing phenolphthalein turns <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #ff66ff; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">light pink if the pH changes from <span style="background-color: transparent; color: red; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">acidic to a slightly <span style="background-color: transparent; color: navy; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">basic solution
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Steps to a neutralization reaction (like our lab):
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">//<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Standard solution: // a solution of known concentration used in carrying out titration
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">//<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Titration: // method used to determine the concentration of a solution (often and acid or base); a solution of known concentration (the standard) is added to a measured amt. of unknown concentration until an indicator signals and ending point
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">//<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">End point: // the point in titration at which the indicator changes colors
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">//<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Key concept: // <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;"> The point of neutralization is the end point of the titration.



media type="youtube" key="PCM5IwJ8wcs?rel=0" height="349" width="425"
 * Need help with math? Check out this link below!.....
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">http://www.cat.pinellas.k12.fl.us/textbooks/chemistry/ebook/products/0-13-190443-4/chemasap/dswmedia/rsc/asap1_chem05_cmps1933.htm

**__Section 12__** - Salts and Solutions Nick Brault: pgs. 618-622


 * Salts and Solutions- Nick Brault p 618-622**

Salt Hydrolysis:
 * Salts are formed through neutralization reactions.
 * Most salts are neutral, but there are some that are acidic or basic.
 * In Salt Hydrolysis, salt anions or cations donate or remove hydrogen ions from water.

Buffers: <span style="display: block; font-size: 24px; height: 1px; left: -10000px; overflow: hidden; position: absolute; top: 15630px; width: 1px;">**__19.3 Strengths of Acids and Bases__** (pgs. 605-607) <span style="display: block; font-size: 18px; height: 1px; left: -10000px; overflow: hidden; position: absolute; top: 15630px; width: 1px;">By Eileen Corkery
 * Buffers are solutions where the pH remains relatively the same when small amounts of acids or bases are added
 * It is more resistant to drastic changes in pH than pure water.
 * Buffer Capacity is the amount of acid or base that can be added to a buffer before significant changes will occur to pH.

<span style="display: block; height: 1px; left: -10000px; overflow: hidden; position: absolute; top: 15630px; width: 1px;"> <span style="display: block; height: 1px; left: -10000px; overflow: hidden; position: absolute; top: 15630px; width: 1px;">Citric Acid= weak sulfuric acid= VERY strong <span style="display: block; height: 1px; left: -10000px; overflow: hidden; position: absolute; top: 15630px; width: 1px;">**I) Strong Acids and Weak Acids** <span style="display: block; height: 1px; left: -10000px; overflow: hidden; position: absolute; top: 15630px; width: 1px;">- We have acids around us everyday, although some are very weak, and some are very strong <span style="display: block; height: 1px; left: -10000px; overflow: hidden; position: absolute; top: 15630px; width: 1px;">- One example of a weak acid is citric acid, commonly found in oranges and lemons. One strong acid is sulfuric acid, which is used in industrial factories, and can burn through skin. <span style="display: block; height: 1px; left: -10000px; overflow: hidden; position: absolute; top: 15630px; width: 1px;">- Acids are called strong or weak, depending on the degree to which they ionize in water. <span style="display: block; height: 1px; left: -10000px; overflow: hidden; position: absolute; top: 15630px; width: 1px;">~Strong acids (such as hydrochloric acid in your stomach, and sulfuric acid) are completely ionized in aqueous solutions. <span style="display: block; height: 1px; left: -10000px; overflow: hidden; position: absolute; top: 15630px; width: 1px;">~Weak acids, such as ethanoic acid (aka acetic acid), are only slightly ionized in aqueous solutions. <span style="display: block; height: 1px; left: -10000px; overflow: hidden; position: absolute; top: 15630px; width: 1px;">media type="youtube" key="u5mNk1CEpDg" height="349" width="425" <span style="display: block; height: 1px; left: -10000px; overflow: hidden; position: absolute; top: 15630px; width: 1px;">Yeah, so in the above video, the two of them kind of ramble on about teenage romances (you have to watch...) and how they relate to acids and bases. <span style="display: block; height: 1px; left: -10000px; overflow: hidden; position: absolute; top: 15630px; width: 1px;">**II) Acid Dissociation Constant** <span style="display: block; height: 1px; left: -10000px; overflow: hidden; position: absolute; top: 15630px; width: 1px;">- In weak acids, very few of the molecules are ionized at any instant; they do no dissociate in water. <span style="display: block; height: 1px; left: -10000px; overflow: hidden; position: absolute; top: 15630px; width: 1px;">-In strong acids, almost all of the molecules are ionized, and the acid completely dissociates in water. <span style="display: block; height: 1px; left: -10000px; overflow: hidden; position: absolute; top: 15630px; width: 1px;">- Now this is where it gets kind of difficult. I highly recommend that if I do not explain this adequately, that you turn to pages 606-607 in you textbook for further explaining:) <span style="display: block; height: 1px; left: -10000px; overflow: hidden; position: absolute; top: 15630px; width: 1px;">- An acid dissociation constant (Ka) is the ratio of the concentration of the dissociated (aka ionized) form of an acid to the concentration of the undissociated (nonionized) form. Acid dissociation constants can be created by combining the constant concentration of water with K(eq) <span style="display: block; height: 1px; left: -10000px; overflow: hidden; position: absolute; top: 15630px; width: 1px;">- Example: <span style="display: block; height: 1px; left: -10000px; overflow: hidden; position: absolute; top: 15630px; width: 1px;">K(eq) x (H2O) = K(a)= __(H3O+) X (CH3COO-)__ <span style="display: block; height: 1px; left: -10000px; overflow: hidden; position: absolute; top: 15630px; width: 1px;">9CH3COOH) <span style="display: block; height: 1px; left: -10000px; overflow: hidden; position: absolute; top: 15630px; width: 1px;">-Dissociation constants are sometimes called ionization constants because the acid dissociation constant reflects the fraction of an acid in the ionized form. <span style="display: block; height: 1px; left: -10000px; overflow: hidden; position: absolute; top: 15630px; width: 1px;">- Weak acids have small K(a) values. The stronger an acid is, the larger its K(a) value is. (K(a) is the acid dissociation constant)