chapters+2+and+6

** Period C ** Editor: Nina DeMeo
 * __ Matter and The Periodic Table __**



Introduction to the Wiki: This page has been constructed on the second and sixth chapters of Prentice Hall's //Chemistry// textbook. The second chapter focuses on describing and identifying different types of matter. This chapter describes the states of matter, types of properties, and chemical and physical changes. Additionally, it includes information about elements, compounds, substances, mixtures, and solutions. Chapter six primarily focuses on the periodic table and teaching about the different sections within the periodic table. This wiki-page outlines the chapter in its entirety, and has included all information crucial to the understanding of these chapters.

Group 1 __– pg 39 - 55__


 * Maggie Bie (co-editor)
 * Courtney Gareau
 * Mike McShane
 * Eileen Corkery
 * Andrew Sciotti
 * Nick Brault (pictures and visual aids)


 * Section 2.1 – Properties of Matter – Courtney Gareau **

__ Describing Matter: __ Key Concept – “Properties used to describe matter can be classified as extensive or intensive.”

An **extensive property** is a property that depends on the amount of matter in a sample. The following are examples of extensive properties: · **Mass** – measure of the amount of matter the object contains · **Volume** – measure of the space occupied by the object · Weight  An **intensive property** is a property that depends on the type of matter in a sample, not the amount. The following are examples of intensive properties: · Hardness · Density · Color · Melting Point · Solubility · Temperature  __ Identifying Substances: __ Key Concept - “Every sample of a given substance has identical intensive properties because every sample has the same composition.”

**Substance** – matter that has a uniform and definite composition

A **physical property** is a quality or condition of a substance that can be observed or measured without changing the substance's composition. The following are examples of physical properties: · Hardness · Color · Conductivity · Malleability · Melting Point · Boiling Point



__ States of Matter: __ Key Concept – “Three states of matter are solid, liquid, and gas.”

A **solid** is a form of matter that has a definite shape and volume. The particles within a solid are packed tightly together and often are in an orderly arrangement. Solids are almost incompressible and expand only slightly when heated.

A **liquid** is a form of matter that has a definite shape, flows, yet has fixed volume. The particles in a liquid are close together, but they are free to flow past one another. Because of this, a liquid takes the shape of the container it is in. Liquids are almost incompressible and tend to expand slightly when heated.

A **gas** is a form of matter that takes both the shape and volume of its container. Gases expand to fill any volume. The particles in a gas are much farther apart than the particles in a liquid. Due to this, gases are easily compressed. The words “gas” and “vapor” are sometimes used interchangeably, but there is a difference. “Gas” refers to a substance (ex. oxygen) that exists in a gaseous state at room temperature.

**Vapor** describes the gaseous state of a substance that is generally a liquid or solid at room temperature (ex. water vapor). The other two states of matter are plasma and Bose-Einstein.

__ Physical Changes: __ Key Concept – “Physical changes can be classified as reversible or irreversible.”

During a **physical change**, some properties of a material change, but the composition of the material does not change. All physical changes that involve a change from one state to another are reversible, otherwise the change is considered irreversible. = Section 2.2- Mixtures- By Mike McShane =
 * Key Concepts**
 * How can mixtures be classified?
 * How can mixtures be separated?

__1.) Classifying Mixtures!!__
-A __**mixture**__ is a physical blend of two or more components. Most things in the world are mixtures (Chicken noodle soup, Air, Salad). Based on how the parts of the mixture are mixed, they can be heterogeneous or homogeneous

-__**Heterogeneous mixtures**__ are mixtures in which the composition is not uniform throughout. This means that there is not always the same amount of a certain item in every part of the mixture. Example: There is likely to be more chicken in one spoonful of chicken noodle soup than another spoonful.

-**__Homogeneous mixtures__** are mixtures in which the composition is uniform throughout. This means that there is always the same amount of each part in every part of the mixture. They are also called solutions. Many solutions are liquids, but they can also be solids and gases. Example: Vinegar-->Water and Acetic Acid, Stainless Steel-->Iron, Chromium, and Nickel. -__**Phase**__ is used to describe any part of a solution with uniform compostition and properties. When oil and vinegar are mixed, they form layers, these are known as phases.

__2.) Separating Mixtures!!__
- Some mixtures may be easy to separate (such as a salad), but most mixtures are tough to separate. There are many different methods of how to separate mixtures. -**__Filtration__** is a process that separates a solid from the liquid. A common way to do this is to use a colander (strainer). A colander is generally used to separate water from food. Coffee filters work in the same way to separate the coffee grinds from the water.

-**__Distillation__** is a process in which a liquid is boiled to produce a vapor that is then condensed into a liquid. This works because the solids that are in with the liquid will not boil because they are a solid. This is commonly used to purify tap water. Because tap water is a mixture of water and other substances that got into the water, distillation can be used to separate the water from those unwanted substances.


 * Section 2.3~Elements and Compounds~ By Eileen Corkery **

~ How are elements and compounds different? ~How can substances and mixtures be distinguished? ~What do chemists use to represent elements and compounds?
 * __ *Key Concepts* __**

__** I) Distinguishing Elements and Compounds **__ ~**element**- the simplest form of matter that has a unique set of properties ~**compound**- a substance that contains two or more elements chemically combined in a fixed proportion ~ Compounds can be broken down into simpler substances by **chemical means**, but elements cannot be broken down media type="youtube" key="-HjMoTthEZ0?fs=1" height="385" width="480"

__** II)Breaking Down Compounds: **__ -The methods used to separate a compound must include chemical, not physical, changes. -**Chemical change**= a change that produces matter with a different composition than the original matter. (Heating sugar= water vapor+ pure carbon) -Using the sugar example in the previous sentence, carbon can’t be broken down because it is a pure element. Electricity can break the water down into hydrogen and oxygen, both of which are elements.

-The properties of compounds are much different than the properties of their components (ingredients) - Sodium (a soft, white metal)+ Chloride (a pale-yellow poisonous gas)= sodium chloride (white, solid table salt)
 * __ III)Properties of Compounds __**

__** IV) Distinguishing Substances and Mixtures **__ ~It can be difficult to determine whether something is a substance or a mixture, based only on appearance. ~Ask yourself whether there are different versions of the same products (low-fat milk, fat-free milk, whole milk). If there are, it is a mixture. ~If the composition of a material is fixed, the material is a substance. If the composition of a material may vary, the material is a mixture. ~See **Mr.D’s matter flow-chart** on how to determine matter.

~Chemists use **chemical symbols** to represent elements, and chemical formulas to represent compounds. ~ The symbols used today were developed by a Swedish chemist, Jons Jacob Berzelius, based on the Latin names for the elements ~The first letter of the chemical symbol is always capitalized; the second is always lowercase ~A lot of times, the English name will be similar to the Latin name, so the symbol is easy to remember (Ca for calcium, N for nitrogen, S for sulfur, etc.) ~Symbols and Latin Names for Some Elements (The ones that are hard to remember): ~A **subscript** is the tiny number following a symbol in a compound that indicates the quantity of that element. For example, in
 * __ V) Symbols and Formulas __**
 * **Name** || **Symbol** || **Latin name** ||
 * Sodium || Na || //natrium// ||
 * Potassium || K || //kalium// ||
 * Antimony || Sb || //stibium// ||
 * Copper || Cu || //cuprum// ||
 * Gold || Au || //aurum// ||
 * Silver || Ag || //argentium// ||
 * Iron || Fe || //ferrum// ||
 * Lead || Pb || //plumbum// ||
 * Tin || Sn || s//tannum// ||

H20, the little “2” means that there are 2 hydrogen molecules in the compound
__ Section 2.4 – Chemical Reactions – Andrew Sciotti __ __ Chemical Changes: __ Key Concept: **During a chemical change, the composition of matter always changes.** A **Chemical Property** is any characteristic of a substance to undergo a specific chemical change. Chemical Properties include: · Flammability (ability to catch on fire) · Toxicity (ability to be poisonous) · Oxidation (ability to react to oxygen) · Radioactivity (randomly emitting energy by particles or waves because of nuclear instability) · Sensitivity to light · PH (acidic or basic)

Real Life Examples: · Match burning into burnt match (oxidation) · Log burning into burnt log (oxidation) · Bike rusting (oxidation) · Apple slice turning brown (oxidation) · News paper turning yellow (sensitivity to light) · Paper catching on fire (flammability)



A **Chemical reaction** is when one or more substances change into one of more new substances. Real Life Examples: · Photosynthesis · Breathing (Respiration) · Digestion · Burning a match A **Reactant** is the substance present at the start of a reaction. Example: · Oxygen and Hydrogen which makes Water · Carbon Dioxide and Water in Photosynthesis · Oxygen and Glucose in Respiration A **Product** is a substance made in a reaction. Example: · Water out of Oxygen and Hydrogen · Glucose and Oxygen in Photosynthesis · Carbon Dioxide, energy, and water in Respiration

__ Recognizing Chemical Changes __

Key Concept: **Clues to chemical change are: transfer of energy, change in color, production of a gas, or formation of precipitate.**

Every chemical change involves a transfer of energy at some point.

A **precipitate** is a solid that forms and settles from a liquid mixture.

*Just because you observe a clue that a chemical change might have happened doesn’t mean one did*

Bubbles form in chemical reactions but also when you boil water and open a carbonated drink.

The only way to prove a chemical change has occurred is by testing the composition of a sample before and after a change.

__ Conservation of Mass __ Key Concept: **During any chemical reaction the mass of the products is always the same as the mass of the reactants.**

*Just because you can’t see matter doesn’t mean it isn’t there*

The **Law of conservation of mass** states that in any physical or chemical change/reaction that mass is conserved (neither created, nor destroyed)

When you burn wood you get a small pile of ashes. Doesn’t this mean that the law of conservation of mass is wrong? No it isn’t.

You may not be able to see but carbon dioxide gas and water vapor is produced. When you add up the mass of the vapors, gases and ashes it does add up to the mass of the wood.

__Group 2__ – pg 155-166
 * Adam Shanahan (co-editor)
 * Steven Denison
 * Thomas DeMarco
 * Kendyl Barron
 * Elizabeth Sieber

--Elements, in their pure forms, were largely unknown to early civilizations, save a selected few of value metals such as gold, silver, copper, iron, etc.
--As years went on, more elements were discovered and named, **but few isolated**. Chemists began using the **scientific method** approach to identifying unknown substances, and more and more elements were discovered. --Chemists needed a way to organize the //growing number of elements in a logical way//. --It was recognized that elements should be organized //into groups by similar properties//. --J. W. Dobereiner, a German chemist, attempted to classify elements by sorted them into **triads**, or sets of three. The three //elements of a triad shared similar properties//. It was also found that, the atomic mass of the middle element was usually about the average of the other two elements//. However, with this classification method not all elements were grouped into triads.//

// J. W. Dobereiner //

__ Mendeleev's Period Table - Kendyl Barron __
===--Several systems of organization were purposed and failed before the 1870s when a Russian **chemist named Dimitri Mendeleev established a table organization method of the elements based on their properties. **=== --Mendeleev was also a teacher and developed his system of organization while studying a science text. He identified the major properties of the 60 elements then known and arranged them until he found a periodical method. --Mendeleev’s system of organization grouped elements by increasing atomic mass and into groups of similar properties. --Mendeleev also left spaces in his periodic table figuring elements yet to be discovered would fit into these groups and rows based on the properties of surrounding elements. --This system of organization became a tool for other chemists to determine and discover other elements.

// Dimitri Mendeleev Mendeleev’s Draft of the Table //

**The Periodic Law, page 157 by Adam Shanahan**

 * Periodic- From the Greek roots //peri// (around) and //hodos// (path). In the periodic table, properties repeat from left to right across each period (row).
 * Elements in the periodic table are arranged in order of increasing atomic number (number of protons in an element).
 * There are 7 periods, period 1 has 2 elements, period 2 has 8 elements, period 4 has 18 elements, and period 6 has 32 elements.
 * Periods correspond to principal energy levels. There are more elements in higher number periods because there are more orbitals in higher energy levels.
 * **Periodic Law- When elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number, there is a periodic repetition of their chemical and physical properties.**

By Thomas DeMarco All metals are solid at room temperature except for mercury. Also, many metals are ductile which means they can be made into wires. Most metals are malleable which means they can be hammered into thin sheets without breaking. Metals are widely used for many reasons such as buildings, machinery, and even fireworks.
 * __ Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids pg. 158-160 __**
 * Metals ** make up most of the elements (80 percent). Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity.



Some are solid and bromine is a liquid. In general, the nonmetals are poor conductors of heat and electricity. Carbon is an exception. Solid nonmetals are usually brittle and will shatter if they are hit with a hammer.
 * Nonmetals ** are found on the periodic table at the top right. Nonmetals have a larger variety in their physical properties than metals. Most nonmetals are gas at room temperature.



nonmetals. In some instances they may react like a metal but in another they may react like a nonmetal. The way they react can usually be controlled by changing the conditions.
 * Metalloids ** are found on the periodic table separating the metals and nonmetals. They form a “stair-step line”. Metalloids have properties like metals and

=__ Section 6.2 Classifying the Elements, page 161 __=

**Electron Configuration in Groups, 164-165 by Steven Denison**

 * Electrons are a main factor in determining the properties of an element
 * There is a connection between an electron configuration and an elements location in the periodic table
 * Noble Gases
 * These are elements in Group 8A of the Periodic Table
 * Sometimes called __inert gases__ because they rarely take part in reactions


 * Helium (He) || 1s2 ||
 * Neon (Ne) || 1s2 2s22p6 ||
 * Argon (Ar) || 1s22s22p6 3s23p6 ||
 * Krypton (Kr) || 1s22s22p63s23p63d10 4s24p2 ||


 * Based on the table you can tell that the highest energy levels of //s// and //p// are both completely filled
 * This is why they are hardly ever involved in reactions
 * The Representative Elements
 * Elements in Groups 1A-7A
 * Because they display a wide range of physical and chemical properties
 * Most are __metals__, __non-metals__, __metalloids__
 * Most are solids, some are gases, and Bromine is a liquid
 * These elements do not have completely filled highest energy levels
 * The following elements in Group 1A all have a highest energy level with only 1 electron


 * Lithium (Li) || 1s2 2s1 ||
 * Sodium (Na) || 1s22s22p6 3s1 ||
 * Potassium (K) || 1s22s22p63s23p6 4s1 ||


 * The next set of elements from Group 4A all have 4 electrons in there final energy rings


 * Carbon (C) || 1s2 2s22p2 ||
 * Silicon (Si) || 1s22s22p6 3s23p2 ||
 * Germanium (Ge) || 1s22s22p63s23p63d10 4s24p2 ||


 * Based on the previous tables we can determine that elements are grouped by the number of electrons in the highest occupied energy level

**Transition elements, page 166 by Adam Shanahan**


 * On the periodic table, the B group splits up the A group on the left side and the A group on the right side. Elements in the B group are called transition elements.
 * There are 2 kinds of transition elements
 * Transition metals- The main body of the periodic table. They include copper, silver, and gold. In atoms of a transition metal, the highest occupied s sub-level and a nearby d contain electrons. These elements are characterized by the presence of electrons in d orbitals.
 * Inner transition metals- Below the main body of the periodic table. The highest occupied s sub-level and nearby f sub-level generally contain electrons characterized by f orbitals that contain electrons
 * Blocks of elements - the periodic table is divided by blocks of elements that correspond to the highest occupied sub-levels.
 * The S block is groups 1A, 2A, and the noble gas helium.
 * The P block is groups 3A, 4A, 5A, 6A, 7A, and 8A with the exception of helium.
 * The D block is transition metals.
 * The F block is inner transition metals.

Group 3 – pg 170- 178
 * Evan Grandfield (co-editor)
 * Marion Burdick
 * Christos Anastos
 * Heather Bowditch
 * Katherine Perry

Marion Burdick

__ Section 6.3 - Periodic Trends __
**__ Trends in Atomic Size __**

–//molecule//: the smallest physical unit of a substance that can exist independently, consisting of one or more atoms held together by chemical forces – //atomic radius//: one half of the distance between the nuclei of two atoms of the same element when the atoms are joined //–//distance between atoms is measured in picometers (one trillion to one meter) //–// Example: the distance between the nuclei of a hydrogen molecule is 60pm The atomic radius, which is one half the distance of the nuclei, is 30pm (60pm / 2) v //In general atomic size increases from top to bottom within a group and decreases from left to right across a period.// __Group Trends in Atomic Size__ · Atomic radius within groups increases as the atomic number increases. - This is a //trend//: a tendency of a set of data to move in a certain direction · Although there is an increase in nuclear charge, the addition of another principle energy level results in valence electrons being further from the nucleus (increasing the atomic radius)
 * A single atom is unstable (it doesn’t have a sharply defined boundary) by itself therefore it is impossible to measure the radius of a single atom.
 * In order to calculate the atomic size you need to look at the units that form when atoms of the same element are attached to form a //molecule//
 * atomic size= //atomic radius//

__Periodic Trends in Atomic Size__ · In general the atomic size decreases across a period from left to right. · This trend results from an increase in the nuclear charge and an increase in the number of electrons in the same principal energy level. Increasing the quantity of charge attracts the electrons closer to the nucleus (making the distance between nuclei smaller, thus decreasing the atomic size)
 * Ions - Christos Anastos **
 * //__Ion__-// **an atom or group of atoms that has a positive or negative charge**
 * An atom is considered electrically neutral, because it has an equal number of protons and electrons
 * An atom has a net charge of zero.
 * **Positive and negative ions form when electrons are transferred between atoms**
 * Atoms that are metallic usually form ions by losing electrons. An example of this is a sodium atom, which has 11 protons and 11 electrons. However, when it becomes an ion, it loses an electron and only has 10. Although it only has 10 electrons, it still has 11 protons.
 * If an ion has less electrons (which are negatively charged), than protons (which are positively charged) than the ion has a net positive charge. An ion with a net positive charge is called a cation.
 * __//Cation//__- An ion with a positive charge. This means that the protons of the ion outnumber the electrons.
 * Atoms that are nonmetallice form ions by gaining electrons. An example of this is a chlorine atom, which has 17 protons and 17 electrons. However, when it becomes an ion, it gains an electron. This means that it now has 18 electrons, while still having 17 protons.
 * If an ion has more electrons (which are negatively charged), than protons (which are positively charged), than that ion has a net negative draft. An ion with a net negative draft is called a anion.
 * //__Anion__//- An ion with a negative charge. This means that the electrons in the ion outnumber the protons.

** Trends in Ionization Energy-Katherine Perry **
__ KEY CONCEPT: __ First ionization energy tends to decrease from top to bottom within a group and increase from left to right across a period. __VOCAB__ ionization energy- the energy required to remove an electron from and atom __SUMMARY__ If there is enough energy to overcome the attraction of protons in a nucleus, then the ionization energy can remove electrons from an atom. This energy is measured when the element is in its GASEOUS state. The amount of energy to remove the first electron is the first ionization energy (very creative with naming here). The cation produced then has a 1+ charge. The second ionization energy is required to remove the second electron and make a 2+ charged atom, and the same with the third. Here is a table of the first, second, and third ionization energies for the first 20 elements. *An amount of matter equal to the atomic mass in grams.
 * Ionization Energies of First 20 Elements (kJ/mol*) ||
 * **Symbol** || **First** || **Second** || **Third** ||
 * H || 1312 ||  ||   ||
 * He (noble gas) || 2372 || 5247 ||  ||
 * Li || 520 || 7297 || 11810 ||
 * Be || 899 || 1757 || 14840 ||
 * B || 801 || 2430 || 3659 ||
 * C || 1086 || 2352 || 4619 ||
 * N || 1402 || 2857 || 4577 ||
 * O || 1314 || 3391 || 5301 ||
 * F || 1681 || 3375 || 6045 ||
 * Ne (noble gas) || 2080 || 3963 || 6276 ||
 * Na || 496 || 4565 || 6912 ||
 * Mg || 738 || 1450 || 7732 ||
 * Al || 578 || 1816 || 2744 ||
 * Si || 786 || 1577 || 3229 ||
 * P || 1012 || 1896 || 2910 ||
 * S || 999 || 2260 || 3380 ||
 * Cl || 1256 || 2297 || 3850 ||
 * Ar (noble gas) || 1520 || 2665 || 3947 ||
 * K || 419 || 3069 || 4600 ||
 * Ca || 590 || 1146 || 4941 ||

By looking at the ionization energy, you can predict what elements will form. There are group trends in ionization energy that can be seen in the graph in Figure 6.17 on page 174 of the Chemistry textbook. As the size of the atom increases, less energy is required to remove an electron from that energy level and the first ionization energy level is lower.

Periodic trends can also be seen in ionization energy in the table on page 174 of the Chemistry textbook. As seen, the first ionization energy generally increases from the left of the periodic table to the right.

__ Trends in Ionic Size-Evan Grandfield __
A. With reactions involving metals and nonmetals, metal atoms usually lose electrons while nonmetal atoms usually gain electrons.

1. A __cation__ is any atom or group of atoms with a positive charge.

2. An __anion__ is any atom or group of atoms with a negative charge.

3. Key Concept: Cations are always smaller than the atoms from which they form. Anions are always larger than the atoms from which they form.

4. In Group 1A, the ion is smaller than the atom. a. Example: a sodium ion's radius is half the radius of a sodium atom. This happens because when a sodium atom loses an electron, an increase in the attraction between the electrons and nucleus occurs.

5. Representative element metals usually lose all their outermost electrons when they undergo the process of ionization.

6. The halogens in Group 7A have ions much larger than their atoms. a. Example: a fluoride ion's radius is more than double the radius of a fluorine atom. This happens because an increase in the number of electrons results in a lesser attraction of the nucleus to any single atom.

7. Across a period left to right we see a decrease in positive ion size and later a decrease in negative ion size.



**__ Trends in Electronegativity by Heather Bowditch __**
**Electronegativity **- the chemical property of an atom that describes its ability to attract electrons toward itself, when the atom is in a compound

- It is affected by an atom’s atomic number and its distance of valence (outer) electrons from the nucleus. - Scientists use things such as ionization energy to calculate electronegativity. - It was first defined by Linus Pauling in 1932 ;  electronegativity is measured in Paulings. - Electronegativity cannot be directly measured and must be calculated from other atomic properties. Therefore, there may be small numeric differences in values. However, the trends of the electronegativity between elements are always the same.

- Noble gases do not form many compounds so they are generally omitted from electronegativity charts.

- As seen in this picture, **electronegativity generally decreases from top to bottom in each group and increases from left to right in each period**. (key concept) - Cesium has the lowest electronegativity of all the elements with a value of about 0.7. This means it has the lowest tendency to attract electrons and when it reacts it generally loses electrons and forms positive ions. - Fluorine has the highest electronegativity, with a value of about 4.0. This means it has a high tendency to attract electrons and generally forms a negative ion. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">Table 6.2 (from book)

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">2.1 ||  ||   ||   ||   ||   ||   || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">1.0 || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Be ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">1.5 || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">B ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">2.0 || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">C ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">2.5 || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">N ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">3.0 || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">O ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">3.5 || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">F ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">4.0 || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">0.9 || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Mg ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">1.2 || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Al ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">1.5 || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Si ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">1.8 || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">P ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">2.1 || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">S ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">2.5 || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Cl ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">3.0 || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">0.8 || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Ca ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">1.0 || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Ga ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">1.6 || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Ge ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">1.8 || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">As ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">2.0 || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Se ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">2.4 || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Br ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">2.8 || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">0.8 || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Sr ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">1.0 || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">In ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">1.7 || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Sn ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">1.8 || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Sb ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">1.9 || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Te ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">2.1 || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">I ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">2.5 || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">0.7 || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Ba ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">0.9 || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Tl ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">1.8 || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Pb ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">1.9 || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Bi ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">1.9 ||  ||   ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">Electronegativity Values for Selected Elements ||
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">H **
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Li **
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Na **
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">K **
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Rb **
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Cs **